LAKE HURON
A view from Fort Mackinac
Photo: A. Kurata
A. LOCATION
Michigan, USA; and Ontario, Canada. 43:0 -46:1 N, 79:0 -84:5 W; 176 m above
sea level.
B. DESCRIPTION
Lake Huron is the second largest of the Great Lakes
and the fifth largest in the world, with the most irregular shape of any
of the Great Lakes. Even its largest island, Manitoulin, is wider than
the State of Rhode Island, and has five small lakes of its own. The lake
is connected with its neighbor, nearly same-sized L. Michigan, only by
a narrow straight called the Straights of Mackinac, which is spanned by
a 8 km-long bridge, the Mighty Mac. The shores around Mackinac offer spectacular
landscape. The water quality of the lake is still excellent and oligotrophic.
Transparency is generally recorded at 8 m, and chlorophyll a concentration
at the lake centre is less than 2 micro l-1. However, the water in Saginaw
Bay in the southern part has become considerably worse due to the nutrient
loading from surrounding areas.
Many long freighters and other seafacing vessels
come and go on this "inland sea". In summer, recreational boating and yacht-racing
are supported by many local clubs almost every day.
C. PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS (Q)
Surface area [km2] |
59,570 |
Volume [km3] |
3,535 |
Maximum depth [m] |
228 |
Mean depth [m] |
53 |
Water level |
Unregulated |
Length of shoreline [km] |
5,088 |
Residence time [yr] |
22.6 |
Catchment area [km2] |
128,464* |
* Not including the catchments of the two upstream Great Lakes.
D. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES
D1 GEOGRAPHICAL (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) Bathymetric map: Fig. NAM-05-01.
Names of main islands: Manitoulin, Dummond, St. Joseph and Cockburn. Number
of outflowing rivers and channels (name): 1 (St. Claire R.).
D2 CLIMATIC (4, 5, 6, 7, 8) Climatic data at Alpena, 1943-1980
Mean temp. [deg C]
|
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Ann. |
|
-7.1 |
-7.5 |
-2.9 |
4.2 |
10.4 |
16.0 |
19.0 |
18.2 |
13.9 |
8.5 |
1.9 |
-3.9 |
5.9 |
Precipitation [mm]
|
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Ann. |
|
46 |
38 |
49 |
58 |
73 |
78 |
69 |
75 |
79 |
64 |
60 |
49 |
739 |
Number of hours of bright sunshine: 2,324 hr yr-1. Solar radiation: 11.10
MJ m-2 day-1. Snowfall Period of snowfall: 120 day yr-1 (middle November-middle
March). Amount of total snowfall: 2.46 m yr-1.
Fig. NAM-05-01
Bathymetric map (Q).
Water temperature [deg C]
|
Depth[m] |
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
|
S* |
1 |
0 |
1 |
3 |
6 |
14 |
20 |
20 |
18 |
11 |
7 |
3 |
* Surface.
Freezing period: 80 days with ca. 60% ice coverage. Mixing type: Dimictic.
Notes on water mixing and thermocline formation The thermocline is formed
from July to November and from January to March.
E. LAKE WATER QUALITY (3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13)
E1 TRANSPARENCY Lake centre, 1954
|
Depth[m] |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
|
|
12 |
14 |
13 |
Fig. NAM-05-02
Distribution of transparency [m], August 1954 (Ayers, 1956).
E2 pH Off Harbor Beach, 1974
|
Depth[m] |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
|
S* |
8.40 |
8.45 |
8.30 |
8.55 |
- |
- |
8.3 |
* Surface.
E4 DO: Fig. NAM-05-03.
Fig. NAM-05-03
Percent saturation of DO [%] of bottom water, 1971.
E6 CHLOROPHYLL CONCENTRATION [micro g l-1] Off Harbor Beach,
1974
|
Depth[m] |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
|
S* |
2 |
2 |
2 |
0.4 |
0.6 |
1.5 |
- |
0.6 |
* Surface.
E7 NITROGEN CONCENTRATION: Fig. NAM-05-04.
Fig. NAM-05-04
Distribution of inorganic nitrogen. Isopleths refer to mean concentrations
[micro g l-1] at 1 m depth , 1971.
E8 PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION: Fig. NAM-05-05.
Fig. NAM-05-05
Distribution of total phosphorus. Isopleths refer to mean concentrations
[micro g l-1] at 1 m depth, 1971.
E10 PAST TRENDS The water quality of open Lake Huron and that
of Saginaw Bay should be considered separately because they are distinct
limnologically. The open waters of Lake Huron exhibit low concentrations
of dissolved ions with a general increase occurring from north to south.
Although the levels indicate a general absence of contamination, the transparency
data indicate a decrease from 10 m to 7 m during the 1957-1971 period (Dobson,
H. H. (1971): Nutrients in Lake Huron, Canada Centre for Inland Waters).
A review of Saginaw Bay water quality data (12) indicates that high levels
of nutrient loading have continued from 1956 to 1971. Concentrations of
all parameters are higher than those found in the open waters of Lake Huron
and are a substantial cause for the north to south increasing concentration
gradient. Loadings of total dissolved solids to all of the Great Lakes,
with the exception of Lake Superior, have increased significantly over
the past 50 years. This has resulted in increased concentrations of nutrients,
chlorides, sulphates, and numerous other ions and compounds in Lakes Michigan,
Huron, Erie and Ontario.
F. BIOLOGICAL FEATURES (3, 4, 5, 11, 13, 14)
F1 FLORA Emerged macrophytes Scirpus acutus, S. americanus, Sparganium
sp., Phragmites sp., Eleocharis sp. Submerged macrophytes Nitella flexilis,
Chara globularis, Isoetes riparia. Phytoplankton Cyclotella comensis, C.
comita, C. glomerata, Coelastrum reticulatum, Tabellaria fenestrata, Asterionella
formosa.
F2 FAUNA Zooplankton Protozoa (Difflugia globulosa, Codonella
sp.), Cladocera (Bosmina longispina, Daphnia retrocurva), Rotifera (Polyarthra
vulgarlis, Notholca longispira); Copepoda (Diaptomus ashlandi, Limnocalanus
macrurus). Benthos Amphipod (Pontoporeia affinis), Oligochaeta (Limnodrilus
sp., Tubifex sp., Stylodrilus sp.), Mullusca (Pisidium sp.). Fish Alosa
pseudoharengus, Oncorhynchus kisutch, O. tschawytscha, Perca flavescens,
Osmerus sp., Stizostedion vitreum, Salvelinus namaycush, Coregonus clupeaformis.
F3 PRIMARY PRODUCTION RATE [mg C m-3 hr-1] 1969-1970 Open water:
0.77-1.69. Saginaw Bay: 28.
Fig. NAM-05-06
Chlorophyll a [mg m-3], primary productivity [mg C m-3 hr-1], total
phosphorus [mg PO4-P m-3] and Secchi disc transparency [m] in Great Lakes
(16).
F5 FISHERY PRODUCTS Annual fish catch* [metric tons] 1977: 2,977.
* Commercial.
F7 NOTES ON THE REMARKABLE CHANGES OF BIOTA IN THE LAKE IN RECENT
YEARS (Q) During the past 40 years major upheavals have occurred. By
1946 sea lamprey had invaded all the Great Lakes and decimated the native
fish population, especially lake trout (Salveinus namaycush). The decline
of native fish populations created conditions favorable for the explosive
increase of alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) which, in turn, greatly reduced
the populations of yellow perch (Perca flavescens), cisco (Coregonus sp.)
and lake herring (Coregonus artedii). Salmon species were introduced in
1964 and have effectively utilized the alewife as a food source. This has
served to both reduce the alewife populations and create a vital sport-fishing
industry. The predominance of alewife also resulted in a shift toward smaller
size zooplankton as the larger species were selectively harvested (Wells,
L. (1969): U.S. Fish Wildlife Service, Fish. Bull., 60: 343-369).
G. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (3-5, 17-24)
G1 LAND USE IN THE CATCHMENT AREA 1978
|
|
Area [km2] |
[%] |
|
Natural landscape |
Woody vegetation |
84,447 |
66.0 |
Herbaceous vegetation |
12,841 |
10.0 |
Agricultural land |
28,840 |
22.0 |
Residential area |
2,336 |
2.0 |
Total |
128,464 |
100.0 |
Main types of woody vegetation Aspen-birch forest, oak-hickory forest,
maple-beech forest and pine forest. Main kinds of crops Dry field bean,
sugar beet, hay, potato, corn and soybean.
G2 INDUSTRIES IN THE CATCHMENT AREA AND THE LAKE 1970
|
|
Gross product |
No. of |
No. of |
Main products |
|
during the |
persons |
establish- |
or major |
|
year [mill.$] |
engaged |
ments |
industries |
|
Primary industry |
Agriculture |
1,090.09 |
42,000 |
23,977 |
Dry field |
|
|
|
|
beans,livestock, |
|
|
|
|
sugar beet, |
|
|
|
|
hay,grains |
Fisheries |
8.72 |
325 |
|
|
|
|
Whitefish |
Others |
541.69 |
1,554 |
48 |
|
|
|
|
Paper products |
Secondary industry |
Manufacturing |
5,336.70 |
165,433 |
1,186 |
Transportation |
|
|
|
|
equipment, |
|
|
|
|
machinery, metal |
|
|
|
|
fabrication |
Mining |
2,427.25 |
1,696 |
N.A. |
Sand,cement, |
|
|
|
|
gravel, crushed |
|
|
|
|
stone |
Others |
1,472.85 |
243,524 |
N.A. |
Building, |
|
|
|
|
construction |
|
|
|
|
engineering |
G3 POPULATION IN THE CATCHMENT AREA (U.S. only) 1970
|
|
|
Population |
Major cities |
|
Population |
density [km-2] |
(population) |
|
Total |
1,236,300 |
9.6 |
Flint, Midland |
|
|
|
Alpena, Saginaw |
H. LAKE UTILIZATION
H1 LAKE UTILIZATION Source of water, fisheries, navigation, tourism
and recreation (swimming, sport-fishing, yachting).
H2 THE LAKE AS WATER RESOURCE (U.S. only) 1975
|
|
Use rate [m3 day-1] |
|
Domestic |
350,000 |
Irrigation |
40,000 |
Industrial |
3,080,000 |
Power plant |
2,710,000 |
Others |
Mining |
270,000 |
I. DETERIORATION OF LAKE ENVIRONMENTS AND HAZARDS
I2 TOXIC CONTAMINATION Mean contaminant concentrations in whole
fish samples of Lake Huron rainbow smelt [mg (wet wt.) kg-1](25) 1979-1983
|
Year |
PCB |
pp'DDE |
sigma DT |
Ag |
As |
Se |
|
1979 |
0.19 |
0.05 |
0.07 |
0.06 |
0.27 |
0.64 |
1980 |
0.11 |
0.05 |
0.07 |
0.07 |
0.26 |
0.69 |
1981 |
0.13 |
0.07 |
0.10 |
0.06 |
0.31 |
0.68 |
1982 |
0.29 |
0.08 |
0.12 |
0.05 |
0.36 |
0.54 |
1983 |
0.18 |
0.07 |
0.10 |
- |
- |
- |
Mean contaminant concentrations in whole fish samples of Lake Huron lake
trout [mg (wet wt.) kg-1](25) 1979-1983
|
Year |
PCB |
pp'DDE |
DDT |
Ag |
As |
Se |
|
1979 |
0.78 |
0.15 |
0.20 |
0.16 |
0.15 |
0.70 |
1980 |
0.42 |
0.22 |
0.25 |
0.18 |
0.18 |
0.75 |
1981 |
2.26 |
0.60 |
1.06 |
0.24 |
0.43 |
0.48 |
1982 |
2.44 |
0.48 |
0.73 |
0.19 |
0.43 |
0.62 |
1983 |
1.24 |
0.39 |
0.68 |
- |
- |
- |
Fig. NAM-05-07
(26) Distribution of cadmium concentrations in surface bottom sediments.
Fig. NAM-05-08
(27) Distribution of quartz-corrected PCBs in surface bottom sediments.
Supplementary notes (Q) Toxic contamination hazards included the input
of toxic inorganic and organic chemicals from municipal point sources,
combined sewer overflows, rural and urban nonpoint sources and leachates
from municipal and hazardous waste landfill disposal sites. Problems from
these sources are most apparent in highly industrialized harbors and embayments
and nearby areas.
I3 EUTROPHICATION (Q) Nitrogen and phosphorus loadings to the
lake [t yr-1] 1976
|
Sources |
Industrial |
Domestic |
Agricultural |
Natural |
Total |
|
T-N |
N.A. |
N.A. |
N.A. |
N.A. |
24,700 |
T-P |
122 |
515 |
2,442 |
1,129 |
4,857* |
* Including 657 t from upstream lakes.
Fig. NAM-05-09
Areas of concern in Lake Huron. The International Joint Commission
areas of concern include locales where environmental degradation and impairment
of beneficial uses is severe and those where some environmental degradation
is obvious and where uses may be impaired.
J. WASTEWATER TREATMENTS (Q)
J1 GENERATION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE CATCHMENT AREA
f) Measurable pollution with well-developed wastewater treatment.
J3 SANITARY FACILITIES AND SEWERAGE Municipal wastewater treatment
systems No. of secondary and tertiary treatment systems: 81 (activated
sludge,trickling filter and oxidation pond)(rate of treatment 420,000 m3
day- 1)(1978).
K. IMPROVEMENT WORKS IN THE LAKE (Q)
Beginning in 1970, a multi-billion dollar remedial program was undertaken
by the United States and Canada under the supervision of the International
Joint Commission.
M. LEGISLATIVE AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES FOR UPGRADING LAKE ENVIRONMENTS
(Q)
M1 NATIONAL AND LOCAL LAWS CONCERNED Names of the laws (the year
of legislation) A large number of Federal and State Laws, Policies and
Industrial Agreements (see Lake Erie). Responsible authorities United States
and Canadian Federal Governments, State of Michigan and Province of Ontario,
local governments. Main items of control
-
Water quality and waste disposal, water use and withdrawal, fishing rights,
navigation, flood and erosion control
N. SOURCES OF DATA
-
Questionnaire was filled by Prof. F. M. D'Itri, Institute of Water Research,
Michigan State University, Lansing, based on the data obtained from the
following sources (1-27).
-
Hough, J. L. (1958) Geology of the Great Lakes. University of Illinois
Press, Urbana, Illinois.
-
Pincus, H. J. (1962) Great Lakes Basin. American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Washington, D. C.
-
Great Lakes Basin Commission Public Information Office (1974) Great Lakes
Basin Frame work Study. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Great Lakes Fishery Commission (1980) Annual Report. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Great Lakes Fisheries Commission (1978) Commercial Fish Production in the
Great Lakes, 1967-1977. Technical Report 3. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Environmental
Satellite, Data and Information Service, National Climatic Data Centre.
Department of Commerce, Asheville, North Carolina.
-
Solar Energy Research Institute. Solar Energy Information Data Book, Insolation
Data Manual. Golden, Colorado.
-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Environmental Data Service.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Local Climatological Data.
-
Great Lakes Water Quality Board, International Joint Commission; United
States and Canada Great Lakes Regional Office (1973) Great Lakes Water
Quality Annual Report to the International Joint Commission. Windsor, Ontario.
-
International Joint Commission; United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1980) Great Lakes Water Quality, 7th Annual Report. Windsor, Ontario.
-
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Limnological Conditions
in Southern Lake Huron, 1974 and 1975. Publication No. EPA-600/3-80-074.
Duluth, Minnesota.
-
Great Lakes Research Division, Institute of Science and Technology, University
of Michigan (1973) Limnological Survey of Lakes Michigan, Superior, Huron
and Erie. Publication No. 17. The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Great Lakes Research Division, Institute of Science and Technology, University
of Michigan (1972) Phytoplankton and Physical-Chemical Conditions in Selected
Rivers and the Coastal Zone of Lake Michigan, 1972. Publication No. 19.
The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Sommers, L. M. (1982) Fish in Lake Michigan. Michigan Sea Grant, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Interagency Committee on Marine Science and Engineering, Federal Council
for Science and Technology, Argonne National Laboratory (1975) Proceedings
of the Second Federal Conference on the Great Lakes.
-
Weathesen, G. L. (1983) Ontario Mineral Score, 1982. Ontario Ministry of
Natural Resources, Video Census Series No. 2.
-
International Joint Commission; United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1978) Environmental Management Strategy for the Great Lakes System.
Windsor, Ontario.
-
International Great Lakes Diversions and Consumptive Uses Study Board (1981)
Great Lakes Diversions and Consumptive Uses, Annex F: Consumptive Water
Uses.
-
International Joint Commission (1978) Inventory of Land Use and Land Use
Practices, 1, Canadian Great Lakes Basin Summary.
-
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Statistics Section (1982) Agricultural
Statistics for Ontario, 1981.
-
Ontario Ministry of Treasury and Economics. Ontario Statistics, 1982.
-
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Fisheries Branch. Employment and
Investment in the Commercial Fishery, 1982 and Commercial Fish Industry.
-
International Joint Commission; United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1980) Pollution in the Great Lakes Basin from Land Use Activities.
Windsor, Ontario.
-
International Joint Commission; United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1978) Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. Windsor, Ontario.
-
Great Lakes Water Quality Board (1985) 1985 Report on Great Lakes Water
Quality.
-
Thomas. R. L. & Mudroch, A. (1979) Report to Small Craft Harbours,
Ontario Region, December 1979. 149 pp.
-
Frank, R., Thomas, R. L., Kemp, A. W. L., Broun, H. E. & Dawson, R.
(1979) J. Great Lakes Res., 5: 131-138.