LAKE SUPERIOR
A view from the lakeside hill at Duluth
Photo: A. Kurata
A. LOCATION
Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, USA; and Ontario, Canada. 46:5-48:0N,
84:0-92:5W; 183 m above sea level.
B. DESCRIPTION
Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world
next to the Caspian Sea, and has more surface area than any other freshwater
lake. Its surface area (82,367 km2) is larger than the State of Maine.
The lake was formed approximately 14,000 years ago by the retreat of continental
ice-sheet together with the other Great Lakes. It is surrounded by hills
and cliffs which offer the most spectacular landscape of any of the Great
Lakes. The largest island, Isle Royale, is a United States National Park.
The Apostle Islands of Wisconsin are now a National
Lakeshore, with beautiful scenery and geological features. The long, hooked
arm of the beautiful Keweenaw Peninsula is also a National Lakeshore of
Michigan. The lake water flows out to L. Huron through the St. Mary's River
from the eastern end.
There are no large cities along the Canadian northern
shore of this lake except for Thunder Bay, Ontario. Twin cities, Duluth
and Superior, are situated at the western end of the lake. A large amount
of ore and grain is loaded for transport abroad in the harbors of these
cities. The 1,900 km journey from Duluth, Minnesota, to Kingston, Ontario,
is the longest inland water transportation route in the world. The lake
water is still oligotrophic and transparency at the centre of the lake
is generally around 9m.
C. PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS (1, 2, 3)
Surface area [km2] |
82,367 |
Volume [km3] |
12,221 |
Maximum depth [m] |
406 |
Mean depth [m] |
148 |
Water level |
Regulated |
Normal range of annual water |
level fluctuation [m]* |
0.3 |
Length of shoreline [km] |
4,768 |
Residence time [yr] |
191 |
Catchment area [km2] |
124,838 |
* During the period of recorded history (130 yrs) the lake has fluctuated
m.
D. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES
D1 GEOGRAPHICAL (Q, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9) Bathymetric map: Fig. NAM-04-01.
Names of main islands: Royale (544 km2) and Grand (36.4 km2). Number of
outflowing rivers and channels (name): 1 (St. Mary's R.).
D2 CLIMATIC (Q, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) Climatic data at Marquette, 1943-1980
Mean temp. [deg C]
|
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Ann. |
|
-8.3 |
-7.9 |
-3.3 |
3.7 |
9.6 |
15.2 |
18.8 |
18.0 |
14.0 |
8.4 |
0.8 |
-0.5 |
5.3 |
Precipitation [mm]
|
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Ann. |
|
52 |
43 |
52 |
62 |
74 |
87 |
77 |
71 |
89 |
70 |
72 |
58 |
808 |
Number of hours of bright sunshine: 2,104 hr yr-1. Solar radiation: 31.22
MJ m-2 day-1.
Fig. NAM-04-01
Bathymetric map (Q).
Water temperature [deg C] Marquette, 1937-1969
|
Depth[m] Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
|
|
0 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
4 |
7 |
12 |
12 |
9 |
6 |
3 |
Freezing period: November-April. Ice formation in Lake Superior begins
in November; however, it never freezes shore to shore. The ice normally
begins to break up in April but may not be completely melted until May.
Mixing type: Dimictic. Notes on water mixing and thermocline formation
Thermocline generally develops January-March and July-September. Mixing
efficiency to lake bottom is fairy low due to great depth. Thermal cycle
is similar throughout the lake but with variations resulting from differences
in latitude and depth. While the water temperature in the lake is nearly
homothermous from November to late May, slight inverse stratification often
occurs in middle winter. Thermal stratification in Lake Superior begins
to occur in early or middle July.
E. LAKE WATER QUALITY (Q, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, 30)
E1 TRANSPARENCY [m] Nearshore, 1973*: 8.5 (0.5-15). Back Bay: 2.3.
* Summer and fall.
Fig. NAM-04-02
Areal distribution of Secchi disc readings in nearshore waters.
E2 pH Surface water Spring 1974: 7.4-8.0. Fall 1974: 7.6-7.9.
1975: 7.6-7.8.
Fig. NAM-04-03
pH of surface water, 1969.
E3 SS Suspended solids were virtually absent in Lake Superior
waters, except in the harbor areas. The lower transparency in Black Bay
and Batchawana Bay was attributed to the natural re-suspension of bottom
sediments by wave action and the low transparency in Thunder Bay and Nipigon
Bay was to urban and industrial sources of suspended solids.
E4 DO [mg l-1] Surface water Spring 1974: - (10.1-13.2). Fall
1974: - (8.5-10.9). 1975: 12.4E.6 (11.2-13.2).
Fig. NAM-04-04
DO [% saturation] in bottom water, 1971.
E6 CHLOROPHYLL CONCENTRATION [micro g l-1] Nearshore: 0.8 (2<)*.
Embayment areas: (0.4-3.8). * Rarely exceeded.
Fig. NAM-04-05
Mean concentrations of chlorophyll-a [micro g l-1], 1970-1971.
E7 NITROGEN CONCENTRATION: Fig. NAM-04-06.
Fig. NAM-04-06
Mean concentrations of inorganic-N [micro g l-1] at 5 m depth, 1971.
E8 PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION Total-P: Fig. NAM-04-07.
Fig. NAM-04-07
Mean concentrations of total-P [micro g l-1] at 5 m depth, 1971.
E9 CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION [mg l-1] 1963: 1.9. 1974: 0.9-1.4.
1975: 1.1-2.3.
F. BIOLOGICAL FEATURES (Q, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 24, 30, 41, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36)
F1 FLORA Emerged macrophytes Scirpus acutus, S. americanus, Sparganium
sp., Phragmites sp., Eleocharis sp. Submerged macrophytes: Nitella flexilis,
Chara globularis, Isoetes riparia. Phytoplankton Cyclotella comensis, C.
comita, C. glomerata, Coelastrum reticulatum, Tabellaria fenestrata, Asterionella
formosa.
F2 FAUNA Zooplankton Protozoa (Difflugia globulosa, Codonella
sp.), Cladocera (Bosmina longispina, Daphnia retrocurva), Rotifera (Polyarthra
vulgaris, Notholca longispira), Copepoda (Diaptomus ashlandi, Limnocalanus
macrurus). Benthos Amphipoda (Pontopooreia affinis), Oligochaeta (Limnodrilus
sp., Tubifex sp., Stylodrilus sp.), Mollusca (Pisidium sp.). Fish Alosa
pseudoharengus, Oncorhynchus kisutch, O. tschawytscha, Perca flavescens,
Osmerus sp., Stizostedion vitreum, Salvelinus namayucush, Coregonus clupeaformis.
Supplementary notes on the biota Phytoplankton assemblages originally dominated
by diatoms have been altered dramatically, first from oligotrophic diatoms
to more eutrophic diatoms and more recently, from diatom dominated assemblages
to phytoplankton assemblages with increasing proportions of blue-green
and green algae has occurred (Conway et al., 1977; Schelske et al., 1976;
Stoermer et al., 1974; Schelske and Stoermer, 1971). Phytoplankton growth
is phosphorus limited and increased inputs of this nutrient have stimulated
growth of diatoms to the extent that, in summer, silica becomes the limiting
nutrient. The result is that the phytoplankton assemblages are shifting
from diatoms to physiological forms of phytoplankton which do not require
silica (Schelske and Stoermer, 1972).
F3 PRIMARY PRODUCTION RATE Carbon fixation rates [mg C m-3 day-1]
1973 Open water: 0.37 EO.18. Bays: 0.59 E0.14. Photosynthetic assimilation
ratios [mp C hr-1 mg chl-a] Open water: 0.82 E0.45.
Fig. NAM-04-08
Chlorophyll a [micro g l-1], primary productivity [micro g C l-1 hr-1],
total phosphorus [micro g PO4-P l-1] and Secchi disc transparency [m] in
the Great Lakes.
F4 BIOMASS: Fig. NAM-04-09.
Fig. NAM-04-09
Nearshore phytoplankton standing crop, 1974.
F5 FISHERY PRODUCTS Annual fish catch [metric tons] 1977: 4,184.
G. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (Q, 3, 5, 10, 11, 16-22, 27)
G1 LAND USE IN THE CATCHMENT AREA
|
|
Area [km2] |
[%] |
|
Natural landscape |
Woody vegetation |
117,970 |
95.0 |
Herbaceous vegetation |
4,963 |
4.0 |
Agricultural land |
1,740 |
1.0 |
Residential area |
165 |
1.0 |
Total |
124,838 |
100.0 |
Main types of woody vegetation Aspen-birch forest, beech-maple forest,
spruce-fir forest, pine forest. Main types of herbaceous vegetation: Pteridium
aquilinum. Main kinds of crops: Hay and potato. Levels of fertilizer application
on crop fields: Light. Trends of change in land use No significant changes
in the last 20 years.
G2 INDUSTRIES IN THE CATCHMENT AREA AND THE LAKE (U.S. only)
|
|
|
Gross product |
No. of |
No. of |
Main products |
|
|
per year |
persons |
establish- |
or major |
|
|
[mill.$] |
engaged |
ments |
industries |
|
Primary industry |
|
Agriculture |
32.40 |
10,900 |
7,194 |
Livestock, hay, |
|
|
|
|
|
forest products |
|
Fisheries |
2.06 |
173 |
N.A. |
Lake herring |
|
Others |
2,321.55 |
6,660 |
203 |
Paper products |
Secondary industry |
|
Manufacturing |
982.50 |
25,485 |
N.A. |
Machinery, paper |
|
|
|
|
|
products, |
|
|
|
|
printing, publishing |
|
Mining |
624.73 |
17,044 |
N.A. |
|
Others |
254.40 |
125,488 |
N.A. |
Numbers of domestic animals in the catchment area Cattle 26,000, sheep
5,200, swine 2,800, poultry 68,500.
G3 POPULATION IN THE CATCHMENT AREA (U.S. only) 1970
|
|
|
Population |
Major cities |
|
Population |
density [km-2] |
(population) |
|
Total |
533.500 |
4.3 |
Duluth, Marquette, Superior |
H. LAKE UTILIZATION (Q)
H1 LAKE UTILIZATION Source of water, fisheries, tourism, recreation
(swimming, yachting, sport- fishing) and navigation.
H2 THE LAKE AS
WATER RESOURCE* 1975
|
|
Use rate [m3 day-1] |
|
Domestic |
150,000 |
Irrigation |
8,700 |
Industrial |
1,080,000 |
Power plant |
2,110,000 |
Others |
Mining |
830,000 |
* U.S. only.
I. DETERIORATION OF LAKE ENVIRONMENTS AND HAZARDS
I1 ENHANCED SILTATION (Q) Extent of damage: Not serious. Supplementary
notes Local siltation in Duluth/Superior harbor and in Thunder Bay from
mining. High water levels (1987) have led to increased siltation in some
shoreline areas due to shore erosion. Presently, the problem is not serious,
because the area is very lightly farmed and there is little open area;
however, it could become serious if not controlled.
I2 TOXIC CONTAMINATION Present status (Q): Detected but not
serious. Past trends of decrease of contaminants in various fish [ppm (wet
wt.) basis](25).
|
|
Names of |
Fish* |
Degree of decrease [ppm] |
|
contaminants |
|
DDT |
Lake trout* |
1.2 (1977) |
<0.4 (1982) |
PCB |
Lake trout |
1.8 (1980) |
0.4 (1982) |
Dieldrin |
Lake trout |
0.5 |
* Salvelinus namaycush muscle samples tested.
Fig. NAM-04-10
Total DDT residues in Lake Superior lake trout.
Fig. NAM-04-11
Total PCB residues in Lake Superior lake trout.
Fig. NAM-04-12
Dieldrin residues in Lake Superior lake trout.
Fig. NAM-04-13
Mercury residues in Lake Superior lake trout.
Distribution of contaminants in the lake sediments [ppb (dry wt.) basis]
(26, 27)
|
Names of |
Range |
Average |
contaminants |
|
DDT |
<1.0-3.0 < |
0.71 |
PCB |
<5-10 < |
3.3 |
Dieldrin |
- |
<0.25 |
Hg |
<50-500 |
- |
Pb |
<50,000,100,000-150,000 |
- |
Distribution of contaminants in the lake sediments [ppm (dry wt.) basis](Q)
1973
|
|
Content in dry sediments (ng g-1)*1 |
|
p,p'-DDE |
HEOD*2 |
|
|
|
PCB |
Locations |
No. |
Mean |
SD |
Mean |
SD |
Mean |
SD |
All basins |
216 |
1.1 |
1.9 |
0.25 |
0.18 |
4.8 |
5.5 |
Non-depositional zone |
189 |
0.4 |
0.6 |
<0.25 |
- |
3.9 |
2.1 |
Duluth sub-basin |
27 |
1.9 |
1.6 |
<0.25 |
- |
8.6 |
13.7 |
Chefswet sub-basin |
27 |
0.7 |
0.8 |
<0.25 |
- |
3.3 |
1.3 |
Apostle sub-basin |
13 |
0.6 |
0.7 |
0.25 |
0.19 |
5.0 |
2.2 |
Thunder Bay Trough |
17 |
2.7 |
5.5 |
0.27 |
0.17 |
5.5 |
2.9 |
Isle Royale sub-basin |
50 |
0.8 |
0.7 |
0.25 |
0.15 |
4.5 |
2.2 |
Thunder Bay |
5 |
1.2 |
1.3 |
0.26 |
0.13 |
5.7 |
3.6 |
Marathon basin |
6 |
0.7 |
0.3 |
0.32 |
0.18 |
6.4 |
7.3 |
Keweenaw basin |
4 |
0.8 |
0.7 |
<0.25 |
- |
3.1 |
1.3 |
Caribou sub-basin |
49 |
0.8 |
1.0 |
0.27 |
0.28 |
3.7 |
1.6 |
Whitefish sub-basin |
18 |
0.9 |
1.2 |
0.28 |
0.16 |
4.4 |
3.0 |
*1 For purposes of calculating the Mean and SD, trace amounts (0.25-0.50
ng/g) of DDE and HEOD were assigned 0.4 ng/g and non-detectable amounts
(<0.25 ng/g) assigned 0.1 ng/g, and for PCB trace amounts (2.5-5.0 ng/g)
were assigned 4.0 ng/g and non-detectable amounts (<2.5 ng/g) assigned
1.0 ng/g. *2 HEOD: Dieldrin.
Fig. NAM-04-14
(38) PCB concentrations in surface sediments (3 cm).
Food safety standards or tolerance limits for toxic contaminant residue
(Q) Regulatory limitations are set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
and Canada Dept. of National Health and Welfare and are advisories only
with regard to human consumption of fish. The U.S. standards are: PCB 2
mg kg-1 DDT 5 mg kg-1, Dieldrin 3 mg kg-1 and mercury 1 mg kg-1 (Federal
limit) and 0.5 mg kg-1 (State limit).
|
|
Restrict consumption |
Do not eat |
|
Important* |
|
Lake Superior (applies to |
Michigan, Wisconsin and |
Lake Trout up to 30" |
Lake Trout over 30" |
Minnesota waters) |
* Nursing mothers, pregnant women, women who anticipate bearing children,
and children age 1 and under should not eat the fish listed in any of the
categories listed above.
Environmental quality standards for contaminants in the lake (Q) IJC 1978
Agreement objectives are "no-effect levels, for the protection of aquatic
life, human consumers of fish, or fish-consuming aquatic birds." Objectives
have been recommended for approximately 40 organic and inorganic chemicals,
including persistent toxic substances, nonpersistent toxic substances,
physical materials, microbiological and radiological contaminants. Examples
of specific objectives include: Dieldrin, less than 0.001 micro g l-1 in
water and less than 0.3 mg kg-1 in edible portions of fish; DDT and metabolites,
less than 0.003 micro g l-1 in water and 1.0 mg kg-1 in fish ; PCB should
not exceed 0.1 mg kg-1 in fish, while the mercury content of filtered water
should be less than 0.2 micro g l-1 and 0.5 mg kg-1 in fish flesh. Supplementary
notes (Q, 37) Critical pollutants in the Great Lakes ecosystem include:
PCB, 2, 3, 7, 8-TCDD, mirex, 2, 3, 7, 8-TCDF, hexachlorobenzene, benzo-a-pyrene,
dieldrin, alkylated lead, DDT and metabolites, toxaphene, and mercury.
The worst problems associated with contaminated sediments occurs in bays,
harbor mouths and connecting channels. For example, the sediments in some
of the drainage ditches emptying into Waukegan Harbor near Chicago contain
as much as 500,000 mg/kg PCB. Heavy urban and industrial development and
use of connecting channels as a transportation corridor have contributed
to the degradation of the water quality of the St. Mary's River connecting
Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. Past experience with persistent toxic
chemicals such as PCB, DDT, mercury, dieldrin and mirex show that once
they are introduced into an aquatic ecosystem, they are extremely difficult
to remove, especially in sediments which become a source for their remobilization
into the water column. Therefore, the emphasis of regulatory officials
has been directed toward preventing their release and the development of
effective and efficient responses to identified problems. Both the United
States and Canada monitor atmospheric deposition for a range of organic
chemicals and heavy metals of concern to the Great Lakes Ecosystem. An
estimated 20% to 25% of the pollutants into the Great Lakes come from atmospheric
fallout. The latest data relative to the total deposition of airborne trace
metals and organics are attached. No effective countermeasures have been
implemented to date. Total deposition of airborne trace substances to Lake
Superior [metric tons year-1](28).
|
Metal |
Total deposition |
|
Zn |
8,210 |
Pb |
1,230 |
Cu |
821 |
Cd |
82 |
Ni |
328 |
Fe |
8,210 |
Al |
14,000 |
Mn |
1,640 |
|
Substance |
Total deposition |
|
Total PCB |
9.8 |
Total DDT |
.58 |
alfa-BHC |
3.3 |
ganmma-BHC |
15.9 |
Dieldrin |
.54 |
HCB |
1.7 |
p,p'-methoxychlor |
8.3 |
apfa-endosulfan |
7.9 |
beta-endosulfan |
8.0 |
Total PAH |
163 |
Anthracene |
4.8 |
Phenanthrene |
4.8 |
Pyrene |
8.3 |
Benzo (a) anthracene |
4.1 |
Perylene |
4.8 |
Benzo (a) pyrene |
7.9 |
DBP |
16 |
DEHP |
16 |
Total organic carbon |
200,000 |
Other hazards include the input of toxic inorganic and organic chemicals
from municipal point sources, combined sewer overflows, rural and urban
nonpoint sources and leachates from municipal and hazardous waste landfill
disposal sites. Problems from these sources are most apparent in highly
industrialized harbors and embayments and nearby areas. The IJC areas of
concern include locales where environmental degradation and impairment
of beneficial uses is severe and those where some environmental degradation
is obvious and where uses may be impaired. The Lake Superior areas of concern
are attached.
Fig. NAM-04-15
Areas of concern in Lake Superior.
I3 EUTROPHICATION Nuisance caused by eutrophication (Q) Others:
Not a significant problem except in urban areas, bays and river mouth.
I4 ACIDIFICATION Extent of damage (Q): No information. Kinds
of damage (Q ) Evidence of damage to Lake Superior from acidic deposition
is not discernable at this time. Supplementary notes (Q) Data relating
the amount of airborne acid deposition and stream effect are highly variable
depending on the total stream alkalinity. For very soft water streams in
the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (i.e., alkalinity less than 10 mg l-1 as
CaCO3), pH decreases of 1 to 2 units (from stream pH values of 7 or 8 to
6 or 7) have been observed in the headwaters area. To date, no studies
have demonstrated detectable ecosystem trends which can be totally ascribed
to acidification. The effects of increased acidic deposition, especially
over terrestrial watershed with little alkaline character, may be more
discernable. Mean monthly value of pH (Washington Creek, Isle Royale National
Park, 1967- 1980)(58).
|
Month |
O |
F |
M |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
|
7.28 |
7.47 |
7.41 |
7.20 |
7.33 |
7.57 |
7.38 |
7.19 |
Because of its size, Lake Superior possesses a large buffering capacity
and apparently is able to neutralize the airborne acid deposition it receives.
Consequently, Lake Superior doesn't appear to be directly affected. This
is not true for many of the streams and tributaries and smaller lakes that
surround and feed Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes.
J. WASTEWATER TREATMENTS
J1 GENERATION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE CATCHMENT AREA
c) Limited pollution with wastewater treatment. d) Measurable pollution
with limited wastewater treatment. Situation differs locally.
J2 APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF POLLUTANT LOADS Summary
of total phosphorus loads (27) 1976
|
P [metric tons yr-1] |
Sources |
Canada |
U.S. |
Total |
[%] |
|
Direct municipal sewage treatment plants |
29 |
39 |
68 |
[2] |
Tributary municipal sewage treatment |
38 |
162 |
200 |
[5] |
Plants |
Direct industrial |
102 |
0 |
102 |
[2] |
Tributary industrial |
0 |
33 |
33 |
[ <1] |
Urban nonpoint direct |
16 |
|
16 |
[ <1] |
Tributary diffuse |
1,453 |
769 |
2,222 |
[53] |
(Tributary total) |
(1,491) |
(964) |
(2,455) |
Sub-total |
1,638 |
1,003 |
2.641 |
[63] |
Atmospheric |
- |
- |
1,566 |
[37] |
Load from upstream lake |
- |
- |
- |
Total |
4.207 |
[100] |
Shoreline erosion |
0 |
3,781 |
3,781 |
(not included in total) |
J3 SANITARY FACILITIES AND SEWERAGE (Q) Municipal wastewater treatment
systems (data for Michigan only) No. of tertiary treatment systems: 3.
No. of secondary treatment systems: 38. No. of primary treatment systems:
9.
K. IMPROVEMENT WORKS IN THE LAKE (Q)
None.
L. DEVELOPMENT PLANS (Q)
On the southern shore of Lake Superior, some limited development planning
has occurred with respect to increased recreational use (second homes,
tourism) by the states' Sea Grant Programs and the Coastal Management Program
of NOAA. The Coastal Management Program has been especially concerned since
1982 with high water levels.
M. LEGISLATIVE AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES FOR UPGRADING LAKE ENVIRONMENTS
(Q)
M1 NATIONAL AND LOCAL LAWS CONCERNED Names of the laws (the year
of legislation)
-
Rivers and Harbors Acts of 1899 and 1909 (33 USC 401 et seq.)
-
Flood Control Acts of 1917, 1936 and 1944
-
Safe Drinking Water Act
-
State legislation implementing and augmenting federal laws
-
Federal Water Pollution Control (Clean Water) Act of 1972 (PL 92-500) and
Amendments of 1977 and 1987 (33 USC 125 et seq.)
-
Boundary Water Treaty of 1909 between United State and Canada
-
1972 and 1978 United States-Canada Agreements on Great Lakes Water Quality
-
Canada Shipping Act (Section XX)
-
Canada Navigable Water Protection Act
-
Canada Waters Act
-
Canada Environmental Contaminants Act
-
Canada Fisheries Act (Section XXXIII)
-
Canada Pesticide Registration Act
-
Ontario Water Resources Act (1982)
-
Ontario Environmental Protection Act (amended 1983)
-
Ontario Pesticide Act (1974 as amended) Responsible authorities
-
Corps of Engineers of the U.S. Army
-
Corps of Engineers of the U.S. Army
-
State Agencies for Environment and Natural Resources
-
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-
International Joint Commission
-
International Joint Commission
-
Canadian Ministry of Transport
-
Canadian Ministry of Transport
-
Environment Canada
-
Environment Canada
-
Environment Canada
-
Environment Canada and Agriculture Canada
-
Ontario Ministry of the Environment
-
Ontario Ministry of the Environment
-
Ontario Ministry of the Environment Main items of control
-
Discharges, dredging and filling
-
Flood control
-
Drinking water-including standards
-
The entire range of water related problems
-
Water pollution
-
Quality of Great Lakes water relative to nutrients
-
Quality of Great Lakes water relative to toxic chemicals
-
All contaminants
-
All contaminants l0) Nutrients
-
Toxic organic and inorganic chemicals
-
Substances injurious to fish
-
Pesticides
-
All contaminants
-
All contaminants
-
Pesticides, herbicides and slimicides Supplementary notes Other U.S. laws
which indirectly relate to preserving the water quality of the Great Lakes
include the 1976 Resource Conservation and Recovery Acts (RCRA), the 1976
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) and the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 as amended 1987 (CERCLA
or Superfund).
M2 INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES
-
Great Lakes Fishery Commission (International) was established in 1960
to formulate, coordinate and implement fisheries research programs related
to the Great Lakes; MI.
-
International Joint Commission (International) was established in 1909
to investigate pollution in the boundary waters of the United States and
Canada; Windsor, Ontario.
-
United States Environmental Protection Agency was established in 1972 to
protect the nation's atmospheric, terrestrial and aquatic environments
and enforce legislation enacted to protect them; Chicago, IL.
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The United States Army Corps of Engineers (U.S., Federal) is concerned
with all aspects of water resources as they relate to present and future
needs of navigation, flood control, power, water supply, irrigation, beach
erosion, dredging and recreational activities; Chicago, IL.
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The United States Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (U.S., Federal) is concerned
with maintaining viable and expanding fisheries in the Great Lakes. In
this regard, it conducts a broad research program on parasite (lamprey)
control, effects of exploitation on the Great Lakes Fishery and establishing
the relationship between limnological conditions and the general biology
of commercial fish species.
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The United States Public Health Service (U.S., Federal) is concerned with
monitoring food and water supplies as they relate to human health. One
of their primary functions is to develop and maintain an inventory of the
sources and nature of pollutants entering each lake relative to the population
and industry of the region; Washington, DC.
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U.S. Department of Agriculture (U.S., Federal) is concerned with developing
programs and research to minimize nonpoint pollution from agriculture (pesticides,
nutrients, and erosion) as it relates to protecting the water quality of
the Great Lakes.
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U.S. Department of Commerce (U.S., Federal) has Great Lakes research and
monitoring programs administered under its National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA).
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U.S. Department of the Interior (U.S., Federal) under its U.S. Geological
Survey, sponsors research and education programs through the State Water
Resources Institute program.
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Great Lakes Commission (an interstate Compact Commission) was established
in 1955 by the eight states bordering the Great Lakes to provide communication,
coordination and advocacy on Lakes issues. The Commission deals with environmental
quality, resources management, transportation and economic development;
Ann Arbor, MI.
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The State Departments of Natural Resources (U.S., State). Each state in
the United States has a Department of Natural Resources or equivalent department
which is responsible for monitoring the state's natural resources and enforcing
legislation enacted to protect them.
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The State Departments of Public Health (U.S., State). Each state in the
United States has a Department of Public Health or equivalent department,
which is responsible for monitoring food and water supplies as they relate
to human health.
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Environment Canada (Canada, Federal). Primary concerns are related to the
protection of the atmospheric, terrestrial and aquatic environments; Toronto,
Ontario.
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Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Canada, Federal). Primary function
is to protect the water quality of freshwater and marine environments as
fish habitats; Burlington, Ontario.
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Health and Welfare Canada (Canada, Federal). Primary function is to monitor
food (fish) taken from the Great Lakes as it relates to human health; Ottawa,
Ontario.
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Agriculture Canada (Canada, Federal) is responsible for developing programs
and research to minimize nonpoint pollution from agriculture (pesticides,
nutrients and erosion) as it relates to protecting the water quality of
the Great Lakes; Ottawa, Ontario.
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Ministry of Agriculture and Food (Canada, Provincial). Primary function
is to monitor food (fish) taken from the Great Lakes as it relates to human
health; Toronto, Ontario.
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The Ontario Ministry of the Environment (Canada, Provincial) is responsible
for monitoring the water quality of lakes, streams, groundwater and drinking
water and to enforce abatement activities around industrial and municipal
facilities; Toronto, Ontario.
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Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (Canada, Provincial). Primary function
is to protect the environmental quality of forests and lakes as related
to fisheries and wildlife habitat; Toronto, Ontario.
M3 RESEARCH INSTITUTES ENGAGED IN THE LAKE ENVIRONMENT STUDIES
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Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario;
Emphasis: monitoring and research.
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Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario; Emphasis: fish toxicity studies
as related to Lake Superior.
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Great Lakes Institute, University of Windsor, Windsor, Canada; Emphasis:
Great Lakes monitoring and research.
-
Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan;
Emphasis: monitoring and research.
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University of Minnesota Limnological Research Centre, University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota; Emphasis: monitoring and research. Supplementary notes
Private organizations concerned with the well-being of the Great Lakes.
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Centre for the Great Lakes, Chicago, IL
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Great Lakes Tomorrow, Toronto, Ontario
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Great Lakes United, Buffalo, NY
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Operation Clean Niagara, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario
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Pollution Probe, Toronto, Ontario
N. SOURCES OF DATA
-
Questionnaire filled by Prof. F. M. D'Itri, Institute of Water Research,
Michigan State University based on the following sources.
-
Hough, J. L. (1958) Geology of the Great Lakes. University of Illinois
Press, Urbana, Illinois.
-
Pincus, H. J. (1962) Great Lakes Basin. American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Washington, D. C.
-
Great Lakes Basin Commission Public Information Office (1974) Great Lakes
Basin Framework Study. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Great Lakes Fishery Commission (1980) Annual Report. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
Great Lakes Fisheries Commission (1978) Commercial Fish Production in the
Great Lakes 1868-1977. Technical Report 3. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Environmental
Satellite, Data and Information Service, National Climatic Data Centre.
Department of Commerce. Ashville, North Carolina.
-
Solar Energy Research Institute. Solar Energy Information Data Book, Insolation
Data Manual. Golden, Colorado.
-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Environmental Data Service,
U.S. Department of Commerce. Local Climatological Data.
-
Great Lakes Water Quality Board, International Joint Commission, United
States and Canada Great Lakes Regional Office (1973) Great Lakes Water
Quality Annual Report to the International Joint Commission. Windsor, Ontario.
-
International Joint Commission, United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1980) Great Lakes Water Quality, 7th Annual Report. Windsor, Ontario.
-
International Joint Commission (1978) Inventory of Land Use and Land Use
Practices, 1, Canadian Great Lakes Basin Summary.
-
Great Lakes Research Division, Institute of Science and Technology, University
of Michigan (1972) Phytoplankton and Physical-Chemical Conditions in Selected
Rivers and the Coastal Zone of Lake Michigan, 1972. Publication No.19.
The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
-
Sommers, L. M. (1982) Fish in Lake Michigan. Michigan Sea Grant, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Limnological Condition in
Southern Lake Huron, 1974 and 1975.
-
Interagency Committee on Marine Science and Engineering, Federal Council
for Science and Technology, Argonne National Laboratory (1975) Proceedings
of the Second Federal Conference on the Great Lakes.
-
Weathesen, G. L. (1983) Ontario Mineral Score, 1982. Ontario Ministry of
Natural Resources, Video Census Series No.2.
-
International Joint Commission, United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1978) Environmental Management Strategy for the Great Lakes system.
Windsor, Ontario.
-
International Great Lakes Diversions and Consumptive Uses Study Board (1981)
Great Lakes Diversions and Consumptive Uses, Annex F: Consumptive Water
Uses.
-
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food Statistics Section (1982) Agricultural
Statistics for Ontario, 1981.
-
Ontario Ministry of Treasury and Economics. Ontario Statistics, 1982.
-
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Fisheries Branch. Employment and
Investment in the Commercial Fishery, 1982 and Commercial Fish Industry.
-
International Joint Commission, United States and Canada Great Lakes Regional
Office (1980) Pollution in the Great Lakes Basin from Land Use Activities.
-
Beeton, A. M. (1962) Light Penetration in the Great Lakes. Pub. No.9, Great
Lakes Res. Div., Inst. Sci. and Tech., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,
pp. 68-79.
-
Conway, H. L., Parker, J. I. Yaguchi E. M. & Mellinger D. L. (1977)
Biological utilization and regeneration of silicon in Lake Michigan. J.
Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 537-544.
-
D'Itri, F.M. (1987) Contaminants in selected fishes from the Upper Great
Lakes. Proceedings of World Conference on Large Lakes-Mackinac '86, W.
W. Schmidtke, Editor, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI. In press.
-
Frank, R., Thomas, R. L., Braun, H. E. Gross, D. L. & Davies, T. T.
(1981) Organochlorine insecticides and PCB in surficial sediments of Lake
Michigan. J. Great Lakes Research 7: 42 -50.
-
IJC. (1978) Environmental Management Strategy for the Great Lakes System.
International Reference Group on Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use Activities
(PLUARG), Final Report, International Joint Commission, Great Lakes Regional
Office, 100 Ouellette Avenue, Windsor, Ontario N9A 6T3, Canada.
-
IJC. (1980) A Perspective on the Problem of Hazardous Substances in the
Great Lakes Ecosystem. Great Lakes Science Advisory Board, Annual Report,
International Joint Commission, Great Lakes Regional Office, 100 Ouellette
Avenue, Windsor, Ontario N9A 6T3, Canada.
-
IJC. (1985) Report on Great Lakes Water Quality. International Joint Commission,
Great Lakes Water Quality Board. (30) Kinkead, J. D. & Chatterjee,
R. M. (1974) A Limnological Survey of Nearshore Waters of Lake Superior.
Proc. 17th Conf. Great Lakes Res., Int'l Assoc. Great Lakes Res., pp. 549-573.
-
Schelske, G. L. (1977) Trophic status and nutrient loading for Lake Michigan.
In: North American Project-A Study of U.S. Water Bodies: A Report for the
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development. Great Lakes Res.
Div., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 499-536.
-
Schelske, G. L. & Roth, O.C. (1973) Limnological survey of Lakes Michigan,
Superior, Huron and Erie. Great Lakes Res. Div., Univ. of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, MI, Pub. 17. (33) Schelske, C. L. & Stoermer E. F. (1971) Eutrophication,
sillica depletion and predicted changes in algal quality in Lake Michigan.
Science 173: 423-424.
-
Schelske, C. L. & Stoermer, E. F. (1972) Phosphorus, silica and eutrophication
of Lake Michigan. In: G. E. Likens (Ed.), Nutrients and Eutrophication.
Special Symposium Vol. 1, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography,
Allen Press, Lawrence, KS, pp. 157-171.
-
Schelske, C. L., Stoermer, E. F. Gannon, J. E. & Simmons, M. S. (1976)
Biological, chemical and physical relationships in the Straits of Mackinac.
Ecol. Res. Series, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, MN, Rep.
No. EPA-600/3.76-095, 266 pp.
-
Stoermer, E. F., Bowman, M. M. Kingston, J. C. & Schaedel, A. L. (1974)
Phytoplankton composition and abundance during IFYGL. Great Lakes Res.
Div., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, Spec. Rep. No. 53, 373 pp.
-
Villeneuve, D. C. (1986) Proceeding of Governor's Conference on Illinois'
Great Lake-Lake Michigan. Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources,
DOC No. RE-IS/86/03. Springfield, IL, pp. 23-25.
-
Frank, R., Thomas, R. S., Braun, H. E., Raspher, J. & Dawson, R. (1980)
Organochlorine insecticides and PCB in surficial sediments of Lake Superior
(1973) J. Great Lakes Research, 6: 113-120.